Black (Périgord)
and white truffles are prized by gourmets and high prices are paid for the
best specimens collected. The truffle we eat is, of course, the underground fruiting
body of a fungus and the bulk of the organism consists of the subterranean mycelium
of hyphae (threads) that spread over the roots of trees, having a symbiotic relationship
with the trees in these two types. The mycelium of most edible fungi spreads widely
and enzymes produced by the fungus break down vegetable matter, transforming it
into materials used in growth of fungal tissue. Above-ground fruiting bodies are
the means of producing millions of spores that are then spread by wind, or
animals, to ensure dispersal and the growth of new hyphae. The mycelium remains
below ground, or hidden within decaying organic material, and it is the fruiting
bodies - mushrooms - that most of us recognise.
One of the pleasures of autumn is to go mushroom collecting
and then preparing various types in the collection by sautéing in very hot
butter. Some are delicious to eat, some less so. I have always enjoyed collecting
mushrooms, although not all members of my family join me in the feast that
usually follows. I think they miss out, as the fruiting bodies of Parasols (Macrolepiota procera, left below), Field
Mushrooms (Agaricus campestris,
centre below) and Wood Blewits (Clitocybe
nuda, right below), for example, are excellent. The hesitation comes from
fear that my collections may contain some toxic types, as there are several mushrooms
that are lethal to humans and I am, after all, an amateur collector.
The most notorious mushroom is the Death Cap (Amanita phalloides, left below) that
causes very unpleasant symptoms of nausea, vomiting and much else, followed by
a partial recovery and then terminal damage to the liver, with death resulting
in three to twelve days. Two other species of Amanita are also deadly - the Panther Cap (A. pantherina, centre below) and the wonderfully-named Destroying
Angel (A. virosa, right below) - and
these both contain similar lethal compounds (amanitoxins and phallotoxins) to
the Death Cap, to which they are closely related. 1 There
are many other poisonous fungi, some of which are lethal and others producing
symptoms that are merely unpleasant. Some of the compounds they contain may produce
effects when mixed, for example, with alcohol and yet others are destroyed by cooking
(but, unfortunately, that is not the case with the toxins produced by the
deadly Amanita spp.). 2
Hallucinogenic compounds are found in the Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria, left below) and in
several species of Psilocybe, known
colloquially as “magic mushrooms” or “shrooms” (right below). Muscimol from A. muscaria induces mild hallucinations,
but the toxins in these mushrooms also cause unpleasant effects. This has led
to the legendary practice of drinking urine from humans and other animals that
have been eating Fly Agaric mushrooms as a way of getting the “high” without
the nasty side effects. 3 Psilocybe
spp. have been used in many countries as a part of religious ceremonies and the
hallucinogenic chemical psilocybin has certainly been important in youth culture
and is used as a recreational drug of choice by some people.
I will not dwell further on these effects, but instead pose
a question - why do some mushrooms contain deadly poisons for humans, or
compounds that give us hallucinations, while we know that others are delicious?
To answer the last part of the question first, our knowledge of all foods comes
from trial and error. Our distant ancestors tried all manner of mushrooms and
selected those that are best to eat, as well as discovering those that are
poisonous. The ingenuity of early collectors shows in their searching for
buried fungi such as truffles, as well as the more obvious fruiting bodies. The first
part of the question is more difficult to answer.
To a Creationist, the poisons, or hallucinogens, were
devised by God and must have some purpose, although it is difficult to know
what that is. There are no references to fungi in the King James’ Bible, so
this part of Creation is something made for a purpose by a Supreme Intelligence
and we must just accept that. As Philip Henry Gosse, the avid Creationist, wrote,
“...the praise of the all-glorious God lies latent in all his creatures, whether
man educe it or not.” 4 To an Evolutionist, the likely explanation
is that the chemical compounds resulted from changes in metabolic processes and
the toxins were a by-product of these changes. While they may have some
deterrent effect on grazing animals, the lethal, or hallucinogenic, effects on
humans are coincidental.
Whether mushrooms are considered valuable, or threatening,
is affected by cultural attitudes and these vary in different parts of the
World. Have you noticed how many mushrooms growing alongside paths are kicked
over in countries where mushroom collecting is not popular? Is that because the
kicker feels that the mushrooms are a threat, or is it just fun to destroy them?
If mushrooms are considered threatening, their reputation was not enhanced by the
images of the mushroom clouds resulting from explosions of nuclear bombs.
Certainly, those who lived through the 1950s and 1960s are only too familiar
with the hideous threat provided by those images. Yet, whatever our views, we
must recognise that fungi of all sorts are essential in breaking down plant and
animal material and transforming it into usable energy. We must also remember that
the fruiting bodies are only part of the whole. And that raises another
question for Evolutionists. How did the fruiting body develop from a mass of
hyphae?
1 Stefan Buczacki (1992) Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and Europe.London,
HarperCollins.
4 Philip Henry Gosse (1865) A Year at the Shore. London, Alexander Strahan.
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